Chapter 9

Questions :

What are Mendel's four hypothesis ?

There are alternative versions of genes that account for variations in inherited chracters.

For each character, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent.

If the two alleles of an inherited pair differ, then one determines the organism's appearance and is called the dominant allele,the other has no noticeable effect and is called and is called the recessive allele.

A sperm or egg carries only one allele for each inherited character because allele pairs separate from each other during the production of

gametes.

How technology helps find the chromosomal disorders ?

Due to new technologies we are to get tested for chromosomal disorders. For examples fetal testing, during which the doctor is able to detect harmful genetic conditions of the child, such as Down syndrome etc.... This testing is very helpful because our recessive alleles don't show themselves until we passed them on then they might have chance to affect the genes which could cause some harmful effects.

What is the difference between phenotype and genotype ?

Phenotype is genetic composition that is expre

ssed by organisms. This could be eye color, shape of nose, skin color etc.. On the other hand genotype is the genetic information that is inside the DNA. These are the traits that we're not able to see but we can pass them on and they could show in the next generation.

Diagram :

This diagram shows Punnett square. This square helps to discover the genetic combination if you have two heterozygous plants reproduce.

5facts:

Sex-linked disorders affect mostly males.

One single gene is capable of affecting many phenotype characters.

Environment we are living in may affect many characters.

We have two types of disorders recessive cause by the recessive gene and dominant disorders cause by the dominant gene.

Punnett square shows the possible gene combination based on the Mendel's hypothesizes

Key terms :

Alleles - alternative versions of a gene

Homozygous organism - organism that has two identical alleles

Heterozygous organism - organism that has two different alleles

Phenotype - organism's physical traits

Genotype - organism's genetic traits

Character - heritable feature

Trait - variant for a character

Hybrids - offsprings of two different varieties

Complete dominance - the dominant allele had the same phenotypic effect whether present in one or two copies

Incomplete dominance - some character's phenotype falls between two parental varieties

Video :

Punnett square

Summarize :

Chapter 9 gives a lecture about genetic informations and how are genes inherited. It describes Mendel's hypothesis and Punnett square which shows us the probability of inherited factors.

Chapter 8

Questions:

What are the phases of mitosis ?

First is interphase which lasts the longest time (about 90% of cell's life cycle) during this phase cell performs normal actions. Also this p

hase is divided into 3 sub-phases G1, S (division of DNA), G2. After interphase prophase follows. During prophase cell looses the nucleus and chromosomes become visible. Then there's prometaphase during this phase spindle is created. At metaphase chromosomes align on the metaphase plate. Then during anaphase the chromosomes separate and move toward the pole's of the cell. Telophase is finishing up the division and cytokinesis divides cytoplasm.

What is the difference between cytokinesis and mitosis ?

Cytokinesis represents the process of cytoplasmic division. Also during cytokinesis the cell finally separates into two daughter cells. On the other hand mitosis represents only the division of nucleus and chromosomes.

What is the difference between the products of Mitosis and Meiosis ?

The main difference between the products of Meiosis and Mitosis is that Meiosis produces cells with haploid number of chromosomes (23 for humans); Meiosis leads into creation of four daughter cells not two and these four cells are sex cells (sperm and egg).

Diagram:

This diagram shows Mitosis. The process and sub phases of Mitosis are described in Question 1.

5facts :

Mitosis is cell division.

Due to cross overs during Meiosis the daughter cells have different genetic variation than parent cells.

Meiosis produces four haploid cells and mitosis produces two diploid cells.

Karyotype is display of magnified images that helps the doctor diagnose any chromosomal diseases.

Down's syndrome is one of the most common chromosome number abnormality.

Key terms :

Karyotype - display of magnified images of an individual's chromosomes

Genetic recombination - the production of gene combinations different from those carried by the original chromosomes

Diploid cells - cells with two homologous sets of chromosomes

Haploid cells - cells with a single chromosome set

Fertilization - process when egg and sperm fuse together

Zygote - the resulting fertilized egg

Sex chromosomes - X and Y chromosomes

Autosomes - 22 pairs of chromosomes (sex chromosomes are not included)

Somatic cell - typical cell in human body

Tumor - an abnormally growing mass of body cells

Video :

Mitosis

Summarize : Chapter 8 was presenting Mitosis and Meiosis. The process of cell reproduction and also the abnormalities that can arise from mistakes during the cell division.

Chapter 7

Questions:

Why is photosynthesis so important ?

Photosynthesis creates oxygen out of CO2. That is very important especially for living organisms that need oxygen to be able to breathe.

What does photosynthesis use to make energy ?

At first the plant absorbs light and uses H2O to produce O2. During this time photosynthesis also creates NADPH and ATP so the plant can use it in second process to create sugar out of CO2

What happens during Calvin cycle ?

Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast. It is a serie of r

eactions that assembles sugar molecules using CO2 and the energy containing products of the light reactions. this stage is named after Melvin Calvin. During this stage happens the most important process the change from inorganic material into organic material.

Diagram :

This diagram shows overall process of photosynthesis. It also shows the flow of ATP and NADPH between the Photosystem I and II and Calvin cycle , which is very important for the phases of photosynthesis.

5facts:

Light reactions include the steps that convert light energy into chemical energy.

Chlorophyll a is light-absorbing pigment in the chloroplast. Chlorophyll plays main role during photosynthesis.

Plants produces O2 as a secondary product of photosynthesis.

Some plants such as C4 and CAM plants are able to save water better than C3 plants, because they first fixate CO2 into a four-carbon compound not three-carbon compound (Calvin cycle).

Photosynthesis can be divided into 2 phases. 1 is when the plant needs light and the 2 is when plant can sustain the process of photosynthesis without light.

Key terms :

Mesophyll - green tissue in the interior of the leaf

Thylakoids - interconnected membranous sacs

Stroma - thick fluid filling up chloroplast

Chlorophyll - light-absorbing pigment

Photoautotrophs - organisms that are able to produce organic molecules from inorganic molecule using the energy of light

Photon - fixed quantity of light energy

Wavelength - distance between the crests of two adjacent waves

Photosystem - consists of a number of light-harvesting complexes

C3 plants - called because the first organic compound produced is three-carbon compound 3-PGA

Global warning - slow but steady rise in the Earth's temperature

Video :

Photosynthesis

Summarize :

This chapter explained the process of photosynthesis. The way plants can transform inorganic molecules into organic molecules. It described the way the light is accepted by chlorophyll and how the process continues inside Photosystems I and II and how it finishes up in Calvin cycle

Chapter 6

Questions :

What are the three main stages of cellular respiration ?

First stage is Glycolysis (breaking of glucose into pyruvate); the second stage is the Citric acid cycle (completes the the breakdown of glucose by decomposing a derivative of pyruvate to carbon dioxide); the third stage is Oxidative phosphorylation (here is generated H+ concentration and and thanks to electron transport chain the H+ molecules are transported back during chemiosmosis to generate A

TP).

What can interrupt cellular respiration ?

Certain poisons can block the cellular respiration. For example Cyanide and carbon monoxide, they bind with an electron carrier in forth protein complex. Cause of that electron cease to flow through and this stops the cellular respiration.

Another poison is oligomycin which blocks the passage of H+ through the channel in ATP synthase.

What is the outcome of ATP's for each phase ?

Glycolysis produces outcome of 2 ATPs and 2 NADH. Citric acid cycle produces 2 ATP, 6 NADH and 2 FADH2 . The oxidative phosphorylation produces the biggest number of ATP about 34 ATP molecules.

Diagram :

This diagram shows the citric acid cycle during which we breath out CO2. It's very complex cycle of reactions that repeats twice per molecule of glucose.

5facts :

Oxidative phosphorylation creates the biggest outcome of ATP (around 34).

Photosynthesis and cellular respiration provide energy for life.

C6H12O6 +6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP energy - this is equation of cellular respiration.

Certain poisons are able to stop the process of cellular respiration .

Fermentation enables cells to produce ATP without oxygen.

Key terms:

Redox reaction - movement of electrons from one molecule to another

Oxidation - loss of electrons from one substance

Reduction - gain of electrons from one substance

Obligate anaerobes - prokaryotes that are poisoned by oxygen, they require only anaerobic conditions

Facultative anaerobes - can make ATP by either fermentation or oxidative phosphorylation

Lactic acid fermentation - process that enables the cell to create ATP without oxygen, some types of bacteria can regenerate NAD+

Intermediates - compounds that form between the initial reactant and the final product

Glycolysis - begins cellular respiration by breaking glucose into pyruvate

Kilocalories - the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1C

Video :

Citric acid cycle

Summarize:

Chapter 6 described the cellular respiration. Basically the process that is going on inside our body everyday. It described the Citric acid cycle which is very important because it's the cell breathing. During this process we breath in O2 and breath out CO2. Also this chapter explained other phases of cellular respiration as well, such as glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation during which our cells create most of ATP molecules.

Chapter 5

Questions :

What do we need enzymes for ?

Enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalysts. What that means is for every reaction in our bodies we need certain energy which is called activation energy (Ea). What enzymes do is that they decrease this activation energy without being consumed by the reaction. So in the end we need enzymes to help our body be more efficient and to be able to process more biological reaction with less energy.

What are the Thermodynamic laws ?

thermodynamic is the study of energy transformations. The first law of thermodynamics explains that the energy of universe is constant; energy can be transferred and transformed but not created. the second law of thermodynamics is that during every energy transfer or transformation some energy becomes unusable.

What is osmosis ?

Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. This membrane allows some substance to cross more easily than others. The perfect scenario is when there's perfect balance between the water and solute concentration (when the cell volume is constant) is called isotonic. Hypertonic is when the water goes out of the cell on the other hand hypotonic is when water comes into cell which makes the cell to increase its volume

Diagram :

This diagram shows how the enzyme decreases activation energy to make more reaction happen without being consumed by the reaction .

5facts:

Selectively permeable membrane is important in keeping the cell's volume constant. This membrane manages what substances will go in the cell and which won't.

ATP powers nearly all forms of cellular work.

Exergonic reaction are those that releases energy, endergonic are those which consume energy.

Every working cell in every organism carries out thousands of exergonic and endergonic reactions. The total of an organism's chemical reactions is called metabolism

Exocytosis is a name of process that exports bulky materials such as proteins outside of the cell.

Endocytosis is a transport process that is the opposite to the exocytosis.

Key terms:

Active transport - in this process a cell must expend energy to move a solute against its concentration gradient

Diffusion - the tendency for particles of any kind to spread out evenly in an available space
Passive transport - the diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane

tonicity - term that describes the ability of a solution to cause a cell to gin or loose water

osmoregulation - control of water balance

kinetic energy - the energy of a motion

potential energy - stored energy that possesses as a result of its location or structure

energy - the capacity to perform work

chemical energy - term that refers to the potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction

cellular respiration - chemical process that uses oxygen to convert the chemical energy that the cell can use to perform work

Video :

Enzymes

Summarize :

The chapter name Working cell tells us a lot about this chapter it describes function it performs, effects of enzymes, and all other important things such as the thermodynamic laws and the effects of solute and water concentration .

Chapter 4

Questions:

1. Why do we need microscopes ?

Microscope is very important invention. It increases the ability of our vision because it magnifies very small objects. Due to this characteristic of microscopes we were able to go a step further in discovering the components of life such as cells atoms and even smaller particles. Before microscope we haven't had an idea of what are living organisms composed of.

2. What does the cytoskeleton do ?

Cytoskeleton is network of protein fibers that helps to organize and maintain structure of the cell and its organelles. We have 3 different types of protein fibers: Microfilaments (form a network that helps support the cell shape); Intermediate filaments (serve to reinforce the cell shape and to anchor certain organelles); Microtubules (they enable movement for cell).

3. What are the main differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell ?

Prokaryotic cells are structurally simpler than eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells lack nucleus, they don't have a membrane around surrounding DNA, ribosomes in prokaryotic cells are smaller than in eukaryotic. Eukaryotic cells on the other hand are more complex and those types of cells are the one found in many complex organisms like humans, plants, animals etc....

Eukaryotic cells have various organelles that maintain the functions of cell, for example : Golgi aparatus, ER, Lysosomes, Chloroplast etc....

Diagram :

On the left side of diagram is shown animal cell (prokaryotic cell) on the right is prokaryotic cell. This diagram shows the main differences between those two types of cells. As you can see prokaryotic cell is lacking nucleus and eukaryotic cell has a various number of organelles.

5facts:

Cilia and flagella move when microtubules bend, which enables the movement of cell

Plant's cell chloroplast are very important throughout the process of photosynthesis

Endosymbiosis it's a theory that mitochondria and chloroplasts were formerly small prokaryotes that began living within larger cell.

Many organelles are connected through endomembrane system

We have two types cells that differ in their structures and that is prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell

Key terms :

chromosomes - carry genes made out of DNA

cytoplasm - entire region between the nucleus and the plasma membrane

cellular metabolism - many of the chemical activities of cell

organelles - membrane bounded structures perform specific functions in the cell

nucleus - contains most of the cell's DNA and controls the cell's activities by directing protein synthesis

Ribosomes - cellular components that carry out protein synthesis

Mitochondria - organelles that carry out cellular respiration in nearly all eukaryotic cells

Peroxisome - organelle that is not part of the endomembrane system; included in the breakdown of fatty acids

Lysosome - consists of digestive enzymes enclosed in membranous sac; digesting process

Vacuoles - membraneous sac with various functions such as hydrolitic (absorbs water)

Video :

Basic cell structure

Summarize :

This chapter is talking about the cell and it's basic structure. It describes all organelles and their function for example Nucleus is surrounded by porous nuclear envelope, the nucleus contains the DNA that carries the cell's hereditary blueprint. Also it divides the cell's organelles into group by their function and gives us the basic cell structure and types.

Chapter 3

Question :

What are the organic compounds ?

Organic compounds are carbon based molecules. Carbon is able to form 4 bounds at most. So for example methan's structure is CH4. Another characteristic for carbon is that he's able to create large and diverse molecules. Also the chain of carbon atoms in organic molecules is called a carbon skeleton.

What are the characteristic chemical groups of organic compounds ?

These chemical groups are called functional groups. They have affect on the molecules functions.

Among those functional groups are :

Hydroxyl group - consists of -OH group connected to a carbon skeleton

Carbonyl group - consists of >C=O group connected to a carbon skeleton. There are two types of carbonyl group Aldehyde and Ketone

Carboxyl group - this functional group is -COOH

Amino group - NH2

Phosphate group - OPO3

Methyl group - CH3

What are the different types of macromolecules found in our body ?

The names of these group are lipids, proteins, nucleic acid and carbohydrates.

Lipids are very large molecules composed of glycerol and fatty acid tail. By breaking down the lipids a huge amount of energy is released.

Proteins are polymers constructed from amino acid monomers. The connection between proteins is called peptide bond.

Nucleic acids are very information-rich polymers of nucleotides. We know two types of nucleic acids and those are DNA and RNA.

Carbohydrates also known as saccharides or sugars. Sugar is source of fast energy they don't produce as big amount of energy as lipids but they are really fast.

Diagram :

This diagram shows the basic monosaccharide glucose. Glucose is main saccharide that is contained in most of polysaccharides. It's also part of process called photosynthesis. It's really important sugar.

5facts :

Nucleic acids are very important in giving informations and controlling processes inside the cells and molecules as well as throughout the whole body.

Lactose tolerance is is a recent mutation in the human genome that allows us to drink milk and digest the sugar contained in the milk Lactose.

All functional groups differ in a specific way and also have different function and differ in a way they influence other cells.

Anabolic steroids are synthetic variants of the male hormone testosterone. It causes buildup of muscle and bone mass. They can also be used as prescription drugs. On the other hand it's very often abused mainly by athletes who are trying to gain muscle mass.

Denaturation is a process when protein's loose their specific shape and their function as well.It can be cause due to temperature change, pH change and salt concentration. In some cases this process can't be reversed causing a serious damage.

Key terms :

carbon skeleton - chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule

organic compounds - carbon-based molecules

monomers - building blocks of polymers

macromolecules - gigantic and four main main classes of large biological molecules

hydrophobic - "afraid of water" molecule doesn't dissolve in water

hydrophilic - "loving water" molecule does dissolve in water

steroids - lipids containing for fused rings. Mainly known as anabolic steroids which are often being abused

saturated lipids - lipids which have maximum number of hydrogens

unsaturated lipids - lipids which don't have a maximum number of hydrogens

enzymes - are specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions in cells.

Video :

Organic compounds

Summarize :

Chapter 3 introduced to us the main compounds, which are carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids and lipids. Also it described functional groups and how each of them can completely change function of carbon molecule.

Chapter 2

Questions :

1. What are the main chemical elements found in body?

First. What is the element? Element is a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by ordinary chemical means. C,O,H,N - Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen. These are four main elements in our body that form most of the body's compounds, such as: proteins, lipids and etc.... There are as well other elements in our body necessary for our body's functions but because they're in so small amounts we call them trace element, such as Ca, P, K, etc....

2. Why are atoms so important for us?

Atom is the smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element. Atom consists of Nucleus which contains Protons and Neutrons and around the nucleus is Electron cloud. Electrons weight 2000 x less than Neutrons and Protons. But the reason why they are so important is obvious everything living is made up of atoms.

3. What is the difference between covalent and ionic bonds?

Ionic bonds form when the attraction of two ions (ion= atom or molecule with an electrical charge resulting from gain or loss of one or more electrons) holds them together.

Covalent bonds form when 2 atoms or molecules share one or more pairs of outer-shell electrons. So ionic bonds are formed by attraction 2 molecules but covalent bonds are when the molecules share their outer-shell electrons.

Diagram :

Diagram explains the way covalent bonds are created. Molecules connected by a covalent bond share their outer shell electrons to have their outer shell completely full. You can see that H has one non pair outer shell electron but when they connected the free electrons are now in the same shell connected.

5facts :

Elements are rarely found in their pure form. Elements usually form compounds which is a substance consisting of two different elements combined in a fix ratio.

Atoms are the smallest units of matter. They are the basic "building structures" throughout our bodies. They can be also radioactive that happens when they release energy and particles.

Radioactive isotopes can be very helpful. We use them to discover certain types of diseases and also they help us date archeological findings.

Chemical reaction make bonds and break them. Those changes lead to change in a composition of matter. Chemical reactions are obtaining most of the basic functions in our which means that if all chemical reactions would stop our body would stop too.

Hydrogen bonds are very specific for water due to these bonds water have different properties than it'd normally have without them. For example the water doesn't completely freeze in oceans which secures the survival of animals living in water.

Key terms :

pH scale - describes how acidic or basic a solution is. Our blood's pH is 7.4

acid - acidic solution have bigger amount of H+ than neutral solution

base - basic solution contains more OH- ions than neutral solution

solvent and solute - the dissolving agent is the solvent and the substance being dissolved is solute

element - substance that can't be broken down to other substances by ordinary chemical means

matter - everything is composed of matter, which is anything that occupies space and has mass

trace elements - elements found in body that are essential but are in a minute quantities

compound - substance consisting of two or more elements combined in fixed ratio

ion - is an atom or molecule with an electrical charge resulting from a gain or loss of one or more electrons

chemical bond - is when two atoms complete their outer shell

Video:

Covalent bond

Summarize :

Chapter 2 describes elements, atoms and molecules. Also the difference between chemical bonds and their characteristics. Also a big part of this chapter talked about water and its specific characteristic such as: cohesion and adhesion, hydrogen bonds (very typical for water) and etc.... It also described pH scale and what this scale represents.

Chapter 1

Questions:

1. Why do we need hierarchy of organisms ?

We divide organisms from biggest to smallest and vice versa. It's because we need some kind of organization. If we would need to find a specific animal and we know where it lives it's easier for us to search for the specific animal in its community than to search through out the whole animal world . As well as if we're examining molecule as the smallest parts of our body we need the hierarchy to be able to describe what will the specific molecule form.

2. What is the chemical basis for all of life's kinship

It's DNA. The genetic material important for all living things. In DNA are hidden informations that forms life as we know. Everyday the DNA gives informations to the body as how to work and tells the body what is it supposed to do. New technologies allows us to solve the way DNA modifies our body. Now we can import DNA from one organism to another we're able to find potential diseases and many other things. That's the reason why is DNA and the study of DNA so important.

3. What are the three domains of life ?

Domain Bacteria and Domain Archaea. They both consists of prokaryotes (group of cells that lack cell's nucleus) They are microscopic. Bacteria are the most diverse and widespread prokaryotes. On the other hand many prokaryotes known as Archaea are living in extreme environments such boiling hot springs and salty water etc.

Domain Eukarya consists of eukaryotic cells (cells with complex structure including cell membrane). Into this group belong Kingdom Animalia, Kingdom Fungi, Kingdom Plantae etc...

Eukaryotic organism are more complex in structure.

Diagram :

This diagram describes the hierarchy of life. Especially this one describes the life forms from their smallest parts to their biggest. It also shows non-living particles of life.

5facts :

1. Hierarchy of organism is one big topic in biology. It categorizes all forms of life.

2. All life is divided into 3 domains of life. Domain Bacteria, Domain Archea and Domain Eukarya. Domains Bacteria and Archea are composed from eukaryotic cells, on the other hand Domain Eukarya is composed of eukaryotic cells.

3. Darwin's evolution theory was big progress in science as we know it today. This theory explains the diversity of life.

4. All forms of life have common features :

1. Order

2. Regulation

3. Growth and development

4. Energy processing

5. Response to the environment

6. Reproduction

7. Evolutionary adaptation

5. Cells are the functional units of life. Cell are the one the performing basically all life functions because everything is made out of cells.

Key terms:

Hypothesis - proposed explanation for a set of observations.

Theory - is much broader in scope. It explains a great diversity of observations and is supported by a large body of evidence. Good hypothesis leads to predictions.

Evolution - today living species are descendants of ancestral species. Author of this theory is Darwin. This theory talks about how all organism are going through evolution in order to survive in their enviroment.

DNA - genetic information responsible for heredity and for programming the production of an organism's molecules.

Cell - the basic unit of life, the lowest level of organization that can perform all activities required for life.

Emergent properties - "the whole is greater than sum" This means that the life form is composed of cells, however all cells can't do the same work as cell that composed other structures.

Natural selection - mechanism for evolution. This idea describes the way certain traits are eliminated from population to make the population stronger.

Darwin - scientist in 19th century. As his biggest contribution to the science was evolution theory and mechanism called natural selection.

Controlled experiment - experiment that compares experimental group with a control group.

Video :

Evolution theory

Summarize:

Chapter 1 was introducing chapter in a way it describes the organizations of life, themes of

biology such as evolution. Also it introduces us to the definitions of theories and laws and

hypothesis. At the end of chapter we can read about the connection between biology and

technology and their influence in our everyday life.